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Current Affairs News
Politics: How
democratic is the Middle East?
Algeria
Multi-party politics was introduced in 1989 but a general
election two years later was annulled after it was won by an
Islamist party. Since then tens of thousands of people have been
killed in a struggle between the military and Islamist
militants.
In November 1996, with civil war raging throughout the country,
Algerian voters opted for a new constitution that granted many
new powers to the president.
The subsequent presidential election in April 1999 saw Abdelaziz
Bouteflika come to power. When six candidates withdrew from the
ballot in protest at what they said was electoral fraud, he ran
without opposition.
In 2004, Mr Bouteflika was re-elected in a landslide victory.
Western diplomats in Algiers said the poll appeared to be the
fairest since 1989.
Bahrain
The country voted in 2001 to turn the country from an emirate
into a constitutional monarchy, with an elected parliament and
an independent judiciary.
In 2002, Bahrain held local elections - the first elections of
any kind for 27 years. They were seen as the initial step in new
moves towards democracy being ushered in rapidly by the king,
Sheikh Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifah. Women were allowed to stand as
candidates and vote for the first time. The Bahraini government
also allowed the establishment of "political associations" but
not political parties.
Following the elections, a new cabinet was established with six
new ministers, including a former opposition figure.
Egypt
Hosni Mubarak, who has been the country's president for 24
years, won a fith six-year term in office in September 2005, in
Egypt's first multi-candidate presidential elections.
The elections were announced in February 2005, when
constitutional changes were made to allow multiple candidates
for the first time, but were marred by accusation of
intimidation and irregular practices. Mr Mubarak won a declared
88.6% of the vote.
But critics say the proposed constitutional change may be more
of a cosmetic measure to defuse pressure for reform, from the US
among others, than a serious commitment to political pluralism.
Human rights groups have said that the Egyptian electoral
process is deeply flawed and undemocratic. The ruling National
Democratic Party has dominated parliament and won elections by
vast margins since the late 1970s.
There is a one-house legislature, the People's Assembly. About
half the house must be farmers and workers. Members are elected
for five-year terms by direct universal suffrage.
The president has extensive executive powers. He is nominated by
at least one third of the members of the People's Assembly,
approved by at least two thirds of them, and confirmed by a
popular referendum.
Iran
The Supreme Leader is the highest political and religious
authority in Iran. He is not elected by voters, but chosen by
the 86-member Assembly of Experts. This body is dominated by
conservative clerics.
He rules through the Islamic Consultative Assembly, which
consists of 290 elected representatives, who serve four-year
terms. The people - who enjoy universal suffrage - also elect a
president for a four-year term.
Conservatives won controversial parliamentary elections in
February 2004 after the country's hardline Council of Guardians,
a 12-member vetting body, barred more than 2,000 reformist
candidates from standing.
The reformists had swept into parliament four years previously,
in an upset for the long-ruling conservative elite.
Reformist President Mohammad Khatami is due to leave office in
2005, at the end of his second term in office. He was swept to
power in 1997 and 2001 mainly by young voters eager for change
but has faced dogged resistance from hardliners.
Iraq
At the end of January 2005 to elect members to a new
transitional National Assembly. The final goal of the political
process, officials say, is a government that is democratically
elected by every Iraqi, through an electoral system the Iraqis
themselves have decided upon and approved.
In theory, elections for this government should take place in
December 2005. But, before that, a constitution needs to be
drawn up and approved.
The election for the 275-seat assembly used a list system based
on proportional representation with the entire country acting as
one constituency. Every third candidate on the list had to be a
woman to ensure that at least 25% of the seats went to women.
The United Iraqi Alliance party, a broad Shia Muslim list, won
48% of January's vote. The Kurdish parties came second in the
poll, followed by the list of the secular Shia and interim Prime
Minister Iyad Allawi.
The biggest losers were the Sunni Arabs. Turnout was as low as
2% in some Sunni areas as people either boycotted the election
or found it hard to vote because of violence.
Drafting the constitution will not be an easy task. There are
the issues of Kurdish federalism - Iraqi Kurds are keen to
maintain their autonomy within a federalist framework - the role
of religion and the under-representation of the Sunnis.
A draft permanent constitution must be presented to Iraqi people
for approval in a general referendum in October.
According to UN resolution 1546, the mandate for the US-led
military force expires at the end of the political process - in
theory by the end of December 2005.
Jordan
Jordan is ruled by a hereditary monarch. The legislature, called
the National Assembly, consists of a senate and a house of
deputies.
The king appoints the members of the senate, and the members of
the house are elected by the people. Citizens over the age of 18
may vote.
Political parties are legal.
On ascending to the throne five years ago, King Abdullah sought
to press ahead with reforms introduced by his late father, King
Hussein, who died in 1999. However, little progress was made.
In January 2005, the king announced a new plan to widen the
public's role in decision-making by setting up elected local
councils, but he did not say how they would work.
Kuwait
Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the al-Sabah
family. The ruler, or emir, chooses the prime minister and the
members of the Council of Ministers.
It was the first Arab country in the Gulf to have an elected
parliament. Adult men and women are allowed to vote and stand in
elections.
Attempts by the ruling family to change the male-dominated
legislative structure succeeded in May 2005 - after being
blocked for six years by tribal and Islamist members of the
National Assembly.
But the amendment allowing women political rights also required
that women "abide by Islamic law", which may yet impose
restrictions on their participation in election campaigns.
Political parties are illegal in Kuwait.
Lebanon
Lebanon has a democratic system but sectarian militias and
neighbouring Syria exert great influence.
Syria has held considerable sway over the country, where it
keeps some 14,000 troops.
In February 2005, the assassination of a former prime minister
Rafik Hariri plunged the country into crisis. Angry
demonstrations against Syrian presence in the country ensued,
the pro-Syrian government in Beirut resigned and Damascus faced
enormous international pressure to withdraw its troops.
Parliamentary elections are scheduled for May 2005. There is
universal adult suffrage. Women have held the right to vote and
to run for office since 1953. Parliamentary seats are
distributed equally among Christian and Muslim sects.
The post of prime minister is customarily given to a member of
the Sunni Muslim community, while the country's president is
Christian and the speaker of parliament is a Shia Muslim.
Libya
The Libyan government is organised as a pyramid of committees
and congresses, each layer of which is involved in the selection
of the level above.
At the top is the General People's Congress. The structure is
intended to allow for broad democratic participation at the
pyramid's base.
In practice, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi rules unopposed, and all
important decisions are centralised. Despite the claims made for
the people's committees, there is currently no movement towards
democracy in Libya, and the country's human rights record is
widely criticised.
Voting for the leaders of the local congresses is mandatory for
all Libyans over the age of 18.
The state owns and controls the media and the authorities do not
permit the publication of opinions contrary to government policy
or criticising the government.
Morocco
The Moroccan constitution concentrates power in the hands of the
royal palace. A hereditary monarch, a prime minister and a
Council of Ministers appointed by the king, form the kingdom's
executive branch.
King Mohammed VI, who came to the throne in 1999 has worked to
liberalise the tightly controlled regime left by his late
father, Hassan II.
In 2002, voters elected members to parliament's lower house in
the first general election since 1997. The king and the
government said they wanted the vote to lay to rest memories of
past corruption-marred elections.
Innovations during that vote included a new system of
proportional representation and a national list reserved for
female candidates to ensure that at least 10% of new MPs were
women.
However, parliament still has limited power.
Oman
The head of the Sultanate of Oman is Sultan Qaboos, who has held
the position since 1970 and is an absolute monarch.
Since he came to power, a number of political reforms have taken
place. The role of elected representatives in the government has
been gradually expanded. Earlier this year there were elections
to the Shura council in which women participated.
However, the council is a purely consultative body. The sultan
makes the laws. There is no formal constitution or legislature,
and there are no political parties.
The sultan appoints a council to assist him. The country is
divided into 50 governorates. Each has a governor who is
appointed by the sultan.
Palestinian territories
The death of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat in November 2004
opened the way for elections in January 2005. Arafat, who had
led his people for decades, was reluctant share power, despite
calls from the international community for reform.
US President George Bush called in June 2002 for "the
Palestinian people to elect new leaders, leaders not compromised
by terror". From the US and Israeli standpoint, the 2005
election fulfilled that need.
The election was won by the candidate of the ruling Fatah
faction Mahmoud Abbas and was described by commentators as the
most open and transparent election the Arab world has seen in
years. There was also a strong showing to Mustafa Barghouti, a
democracy and human rights activist who stood as an independent.
Militant groups Hamas and Islamic Jihad - which have comparable
levels of support to the Fatah - boycotted the election.
However, Hamas moved into mainstream, democratic politics for
the first time when it fielded candidates for local council
elections held recently. It won landslide victories in many of
the councils in the Gaza strip.
Elections for the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC), or
parliament, will be held in July 2005. Hamas may well put up
candidates and, if so, is expected to achieve a sizeable
minority.
Qatar
Qatar is a constitutional monarchy whose head of state is called
an emir.
Emir Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani has advocated greater
political openness since he deposed his father in 1995.
In June 2004, he issued the gulf state's first written
constitution, due to come into force in 2005. It provides for a
45-seat advisory body. Two thirds will be elected, with the
others appointed by the emir, who will retain ultimate power.
The constitution guarantees freedom of expression, assembly and
religion. The plan received overwhelming support by voters,
including women, in a referendum in 2003.
Municipal elections in 1999 were the first democratic polls
since 1971 and marked the start of a democratisation programme.
Women were allowed to vote and stand for office for the first
time.
In 2003, Qatar appointed its first woman cabinet minister,
Sheikha bint Ahmed al-Mahmoud, and also set up a human rights
committee.
There are no political parties in Qatar, but a fully-elected
parliament has been promised for the future.
Saudi Arabia
The absolute monarchy of Saudi Arabia held its first ever
exercise in democracy in February 2005 as it began nationwide
elections at the municipal level. Voters are electing only half
of the municipal council. The other half will still be
appointed.
Only men are allowed to vote or stand as candidates. To be
eligible, they must be over 21 and not serving in the military.
Women, who make up more than 50% of the population, currently
lead restricted lives: they are segregated in public places,
cannot drive cars and must be covered from head to toe when in
public.
Officials promised that women would be part of the next
elections in 2009.
Syria
The Syrian government is renowned for its authoritarian rule,
although there has been a degree of liberalisation since the
death of President Hafez al-Assad.
The ruling Baath Party proposes the candidate for president and
he is then nominated by the legislative branch, the People's
Assembly. After the nomination process, the candidate is
confirmed by a popular referendum.
If the candidate fails to secure a majority, the People's
Assembly nominates another candidate and the referendum process
is repeated. All Syrian nationals over the age of 18 are
eligible to vote.
Tunisia
President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali and his Constitutional
Democratic Rally have been in power for 17 years, and exercise
almost complete control over Tunisian politics.
He was due to retire in 2004 but in 2002 he secured support in a
referendum for changes to the constitution allowing him a
further two terms. In October 2004 President Ben Ali was
re-elected for a fourth five-year term, in the second
multi-party presidential elections since independence.
Official results gave him 94% of the vote The main opposition
group, the Democratic Progressive Party, pulled out two days
before the vote saying its participation would only legitimise a
masquerade of democracy.
The president has faced recent calls by Western politicians such
as US President George Bush to implement urgent democratic
reforms.
There are a few legalised opposition parties.
United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation of seven states.
Although each state - Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Ajman, Fujairah, Ras al
Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al Qaiwain - maintains a large degree
of independence, the UAE is governed by a Supreme Council of
Rulers made up of the seven emirs, who appoint the president and
the cabinet.
The ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed, is the current
president of the UAE. He took over from his father, Sheikh Zayed
Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan, who had been president from 1971 until his
death in 2004. Re-elected every five years since 1971, Sheikh
Zayed instilled the values of religious tolerance and equality,
especially for women, into his policies, which greatly enhanced
the stability of the UAE.
Yemen
The presidential elections of 1999 were the first in which the
president was elected by popular vote.
President Ali Abdullah Saleh won more than 96% of the vote, but
the main opposition party, which was barred from fielding a
candidate, described the poll as a sham.
At present a presidential candidate must receive the nomination
of at least 10% of the legislature to participate in the general
election.
The bicameral parliament is composed of the Consultative Council
and the House of Representatives (Majlis al-Nuwaab). The
Consultative Council has no legislative powers, and the
president appoints its 111 members.
The Council was most recently appointed in April 2001.
The 301 members of the House of Representatives are elected by
plurality vote from single-member constituencies. The latest
elections were held in 2003.
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